The purpose of this article is to support recent claims regarding the potential cost- effectiveness of dictionary-based electronic learning, online and download, for American schools (K-16) facing massive budgetary cutbacks in connection with current attempts to conquer our second Great Depression.That support will take the form of offering Americans the results of two replicable experiments centering upon the general cost-effectiveness of learning vocabulary via electronic media with particular attention to learning anatomical terms.

The experiment design. . . . Our design can fairly be called a multimedia Scripps-style spelling bee.This is to say that our point of departure is the same dictionary, the Random House Unabridged Dictionary (315,000 entries, 1.2 million word-definition combinations) in two media:print, which is available in public libraries and book stores, and electronic, which is available at no charge online via dictionary.com, which cites it first in response to word-based searches for definitions.

>QUESTION FORMAT. . . .Paralleling Scripps and even crossword puzzles, our question format will call for single-word answers on the basis of definition clues, e.g., "Please spell the 10-letter word whose Random House Unabridged definition is "inflammation of the skin," under the heading of Pathology.This basic question format often substitutes a live pronunciation, as with Scripps, for the crossword-style number-of-letters clue.

This question format can also be translated into a"silent spelling bee" format via adding a pronunciation clue,/derr'meuh tuy"tis/, and by using a multiple-choice format viasking for the target word's "second vowel letter": A, E, I, O, "none of these."

>AN ANSWER-RELEVANT LIST OF STUDY TARGETS. . . . Our experiment requires a list or word targets whose definitions, along with other useful entry information, can be found in both the print and online versions of RHU.By way of replication, it should be noted that our study list of anatomical terms is objectively defined by the appearance oftheir field label, anat., in their RHU entries.It should also be noted that the targets in this list have each been rated and ranks for difficulty using the Zipf-based formula: difficulty = number of letters plus numerical position of definition (1^st, 2^nd, 3^rd . . . . 15^th, etc,).

>RANKING AND RATING QUESTION DIFFICULTY. . . . What Zipf called "the principle of least effort" asserted that the words for frequently used objects and ideas tended to take on a smaller size through abbreviation or substitution.This means that we would expect to see cancer (6 letters) turn up in speech and in print more frequently than dermatitis (10 letters).In addition, we would also expect to see 6-letter words like center with 30 definitions turn up more frequently in speech and writing than cancer, which has only five.This variable frequency feature also extends to the definitions themselves, which is to say the second definition of center ("a point around which anything revolves") will turn up more frequently than its 17^th definition ("a cluster of cells").

Our two key features equip us to rate and rank the basic difficulty level of any definition-based question on the basis of its answer word's number of letters plus its numerical position.This means we can rank a center question using its 17^th definition (6+17=23) as substantially more difficult than a question using its second definition.As we'll see, this ranking feature applies all of our potential 2.2 million questions and gives us immense flexibility in designing study programs.

Question-based study materials. . . . The most attractive feature of dictionary-based questions like those of the Scripps tests can be summed up in one word: transparency. This is to say the dictionary entry is publicly available as the source of question, answer, and auxiliary learning infomation.Here, for example, is the basic RHU entry (print, online, and download) fordermatitis:/derr'meuh tuy"tis/, n. Pathol. inflammation of the skin.

[1875-80; DERMAT- + -ITIS]. . . . For non-rote learners, as emphasized by the Steadman medical dictionary, these capitalized cross references are immensely helpful, since they lead to basic meaning of the combining elements ("skin," and "inflammation"), along with an identification of its Greek source and its Anglo Saxon cognate tree.

When it comes to constructing lists of study, the italicized field label Pathol. ("pathology") permits them to be constructed very rapidly via inputting the definition, along with the number of letters if desired (e.g. 10), thereby producing a relatively short list of roughly 200 study targets, as opposed the thousand-plus terms an unrestricted search would give us.Appendix One gives us a 375-target study list of anatomical terms restricted to entries with only one definition and ranked by their length in letters.By way of extending our range further, Appendix Two gives us the conventional field labels (anatomy to zoology) and their abbreviations for over 40,000 terms.

Right now Eurofield Information Solutions is giving away free download of its WordGenius electronic version of RHU to every school library in the USA, thereby equipping librarians, teachers, and even students to produce their own tests and study lists for hundreds of field, mini-field, and multi-field targets.Even more important, though, is the fact that this national and international availability equips those interested in verifying claims made regarding dictionary-based high speed electronic learning can do so on their own — quickly and authoritative;u/

Comparing print learning versus online learning. . . .The learning-role of print dictionaries should not be underestimated.Scripps uses print-dictionary entries, sometimes extracted and published as a separate booklet, and their cost-effectiveness certainly invites experimental comparison with special-field glossaries in textbooks and available online via HMOs like Kaiser Permanente.Our comparison, though, will focus upon the print version of RHU versus its online version at dictionary.com.

Our comparison process used matched groups of study targets, e.g., two parallel 20-term study groups of11-letter single-definition entries, i.e., amphicelous to mediastinum and mesotheliumto syssarcosis.Based on a number of comparisons like this, our overall findings are (a) generally considered, online learning produced superior learning as measured by dictionary-based test performance; and (b) quantitatively considered, online learned can fairly be described as twice as cost-effective as print-based learning, i.e., an average ability student will get the same test results with only half the study time spent by a print student, e.g., 4 minutes per target, as opposed to 8 minutes.

The importance of these findings can be summed up in two familiar Wittgensteinian terms: verification and falsification.This is to say that our cost-effective claim can be easily put to the test by any ambitious reader who wants to construct his or her own two matched comparison groups, study each of them, be tested, and tabulate the results.Less ambitiously, of course, the reader can simply pick a few words at random from Appendix One, study them via dictionary.com, and draw his or her conclusions.

Those conclusions, obviously, should not be taken as supporting the cost effectiveness of online learning overall.But they certainly disprove general assertions regarding the triviality of online learning in general, along with supporting the potential value of dictionary-based high speed electronic learning in many areas: pre-med training, technical-field learning (commerce, engineering, pharmacy, etc.), pre-high school preparation (math, biology, chemistry, and physics terminology), general vocabulary improvement, and even anti-Alzheimer's that seek to prevent and reverse language loss.

Comparing online learning and download learning. . . . Using the same comparisons as those described above, our study asserts that students using the Word Genius download electronic version of RHU will produce results 50% better than those achieve by those using the same diction via dictionary.com. and three times better that those using the print version.The reason for this can be largely be described in one phrase: drag and drop.Simply put, a Word Genius user can access primary targets more quickly, move from one to the other more quickly, and — most important — move very quickly to cross references (e.g., the etymological results achieved above).

The learning theory explanation for this superiority can be summed up in the familiar phrase personal best, which is to say that human beings, once they get past rote repetition, learn and retain idiosyncratically.Hence the need, as in high quality programmed instruction, to offer each learner many different learning clues to choose from (even subconsciously) in retaining the multi-senory target information (including audio phonetics) in each entry.

TO CONCLUDE . . . As indicated at the outset, the primary purpose of what's here has been to make a strong, scientifically verifiable case in favor of dictionary-based high speed electronic learning, online and download, especially in view of the funding cutbacks that American education will surely be facing in the next few years, both in its academic programs and its vocational training programs (plumbing, carpentry, electronics, etc.), each of which has its own technical vocabulary.Hence the inclusion of what might be called a complete ready-to-go technical literacy tool kit via Appendices One and Two.

It should be noted here that today English (largely American pronunciation) is explicitly designated as the official language (including official-alternate status) for over half the population of this planet (cf. Time Almanac 2007).Give the fact that 80% of our vocabulary, especially its technical terms, is Graeco-Latinate, it is highly likely that other de facto English-speaking nations (e.g., Australia, India, China, etc.) will soon be exploring the anti-recession role of dictionary-base high speed electronic learning.To the long term benefit of us all, most will surely agree.

*****

APPENDIX ONE:A 375-term study list in the field of Anatomy

Preliminary Note. . . . The instructions that accompany WordGenius should be read and experimented with before using this list.In the interests of high speed movement and learning, the entries for these words contain only one definition.They are presented in a level-of-difficulty sequence, i.e., 15-letter words followed by 14-letter words.Each group is followed by its number of words.For purposes of comparison, the total number of multiple-definition headwords is included in some instances.The difficulty rankings for each headword are computed via the number of letters plus the numerical position of the definition (1^st . . . . 20^th etc.).Since these are all single definition entries, 15-letter words would add a 1 to determine their difficulty level, e.g., 16 for cerebrovascular.

15 LETTERS:. . . .cerebrovascular cricopharyngeamechanoreceptorparasympatheticrhombencephalonsinorespiratoryTotal = 6

Total single-and multiple-definition headwords = 11

14 LETTERS. . . . amphiarthrosisanteroparietalcardiovasculargalactophoroushepatopancreasinterpupillaryintervertebrallaryngopharynx?myelencephalonprosencephalonrhinencephalon?scapulohumeral?Total = 12;23 single and multiple definition

13 LETTERS. . . . arteriovenousaryepiglotticbulbourethralextravasculargastrocnemiusgastrohepatichemocytoblasthypochondriuminterscapularmaxillofacialmesencephalonneurovascularperichondriumpolyarticularsustentaculartelencephalonventrolateralTotal = 17

12 LETTERS. . . . articulationbuccolingualcraniosacraldiencephalondiverticulumdorsiflexionepencephalonerythroblastfissipalmategubernaculumhypogastriumperinephriumperionychiumperivisceralreticulocyteretrolingualstereociliumsternocostalsubauricularsynarthrosistricuspidateunmyelinatedventrodorsalxiphisternumzygapophysisTotal = 25

11 LETTERS. . . . amphicelousanapophysisanteorbitalaponeurosiscanaliculusconjunctivadentigerousdiapophysisdorsiflexordorsispinaldorsolumbarenarthrosisendarteriumendocardiumendometriumenterocoeleepigastriumepithalamusgallbladdergastrocolichippocampaipsilaterallamellationlumbosacralmediastinummesotheliummyelinationnasopharynxneurofibrilodontoblastolecranioidpaleocortexpericardiumpericraniumperineuriumperitheliumretrobulbarrhomboideuspostorbitalstereotaxicsubcorticalsubscapularsyndesmosissynosteosissyssarcosis

Total = 45

10 LETTERS. . . . adventitia ameloblastanastomose antitragus

approximalbronchiole buccinatorcancellouscerebellumcolorectalencephalonendostosisepicanthusepicardiumepicondyleepicraniumepididymisepiglottisepineuriumganglionichypophysisligamentumlymphocytemedullatedmesorectummesovariummetacarpusmetatarsusmyelinatedmyocardiumneurilemmaneuroplasmosteoblastpanniculuspectoralisperimysiumperiosteumperitoneumprefrontalpremaxillapresternumquadricepssarcolemmasiderocytestalk-eyedstylohyoidsubclavius submaxillasynostosis

Total = 50

9 LETTERS ampullulaankylosisantihelixarteriolearthrodiabronchialbrowridgebursiformcerebroidcholecystclaustrumendolymphendosteumendostyleepimysiumesophagusextensilegenitaliaginglymusgomphosishemoblasthemolymphhindbrainileocecallemniscuslumbricalmalleolarmalleolusmesenterymesocecummesocolonmyelocytemylohyoidneuroglianormocyteolecranonoviferousparanasal perilymphpoplitealpopliteuspostaxialposteriadpupillarysphinctersubmucosasubapicalsupinatortrapeziusvestigium Total = 50

8 LETTERS9:02 AM acromionamnioticasternalatlantalaxilemmabronchiabronchuscalcificcavitary cervicalchondralchorioidcisternaclitoriscotyloidduodenumependymaextensorfontanelglabellagnathitegracilishabenulahemocoelincisureinvertorlipocytemassetermeningesmidbrainmodiolusneuraxonpancreasperonealperoneusphalangephleboidplatysmapreaxialpronatorpudendumretinulascalenussesamoidsplenius

subcutistailbonetrigonumtrochleaurostylevertebrafinish: 9:29total: 51

7 LETTERS 10:30 AMbronchicanthuscarpalecochleadacryondendroneardrumenteronentopicepaxialevertorfalcialfossulafrontadglottisglutealgluteusjejunumlaqueuslateradlobulusmalleusmammarymetopicnephronnodulusocciputomentumoviductparoticpharynxplantarpontinepylorussalpinxscleralscrotumtricepsurethraventradfinish: 10:54total:40

6 LETTERS 10:55 AMaboraladnexa8:02 AMantralbicepscardiaceliaccnemiscorneacristadermisdiploëdorsaddorsal¹fornixfrenumfundusgenial²insulaintimalimbus²meatusmediadmediusmucosarectumnarialrectumrectusretinasacrumsclerastapestectumtestisthymustonsiltragustunicaureteruterusvastusvermistotal: 42

5 LETTERS:aortabursacaputcecumderma¹ectadectalfossa¹glansgonadgyrushymeniliumimparlobusnarespenispsoaspubispupil²ramusspinasuraltalus¹uncusuvulavomervulvaTotal =28

4 LETTERSanusfalxgenagliaiterlien²oticrugauveaTotal = 9Total of single- and multiple-definition 4-letter headwords = 42

APPENDIX TWO:Master Roster of Field Labels used in WordGenius® electronic version of Random House Unabridged.

The field labels, which appear in italics, in the dictionary are presented in alphabetical order with their number of entries (single and multiple definitions) in parentheses.In a number of instances the entries use abbreviations for the fields, e.g., Agri. for Agriculture.

These abbreviations are designated by a following slash line, e.g., Agri/culture.They should be used for searches, not the full words, which may sometimes appear in entries as part of a defining phrase, not a field label.This master roster has been specially compiled; it does not appear in either WordGenius® or the print Random House Unabridged.Nor do other dictionaries (Webster's New World, American Heritage, etc.) list their abbreviations in full.Despite its omissions and errors (there are some), this master roster represents a unique contribution to American lexicography.

Accounting (150)Acou/stics (70)Angling (80)Aeronautics (299)Aerospace(99)Agri/culture (70)Amer/ican Hist/ory (45)Anatomy (1138)Anglican Ch/urch (50)Animal Behav/ior ( 60)Anthropol/ogy (77)Archaeology(82)Archery (20)

Architecture(486)Arithmetic (320)Armor 190(Artillery (90)Astrology(88)Aviation (40)Banking (90)Baseball (540)Basketball (130)Billiards (60) Biochemistry (853)Biology (1011)Bookbinding (70)

Botany (1324)Buddhism (90)Building Trades (40)Cards (270)Carpentry (210)Cell/ular Biol/ogy (190)Chemistry (3389)Class/ical Myth/ology(3000)Class/ical Pros/ody (20)Coal Mining (300)Com/merce(150) Computers(631) Cookery (300)

Cricket (100)Crystall/ography (130)Curling (40)Dentistry(135)Drafting (30)Diving(70)Eastern Ch/urch(60)Ecclesiastics (360)Ecology(118) Econ/omics (80)Education (73)Electricity(627)Electronics (442)Embryol/ogy (150)

Eng/ineering(140)Eng/lish Hist/ory (100)Entomology (122)Finance (120)Fine Arts (130)Football(1210)Fort/ification (70)Fox Hunting (40)Fr/ench Hist/ory (20)French Cookery(50)Furniture (510)Genetics (304)Geog/raphy (76)

Geology(604)Geometry(230)Gk [Greek] and Rom/an Antiq/uities(50)Glassmaking (25)Golf (240)Gram/mar(913)Gymnastics (60)Heraldry (400)

Hinduism (190)Hist/ory (360)Horol/ogy (80)Horse Racing (50)Hunting (270)

Immun/ology (600)Insurance(320)Irish Legend (20)Jainism(10)Jazz (170)Jewelry (130)Journalism (120)Judaism (150)Law (2109)Library Science (60)Ling/uistics (359)Liturgy(40)Logic(380)Mach/inery (300)Mathematics(1289)

Masonry (180)Mech/anics (80)Med/icine (944)Metal Working (80)Metallurgy (300)Meteorology (283) Mexican Cookery (25)Mil/itary (603)Motion Pictures (200)Mineral (750) Mountain Climbing(5)Music (1434)Mycol/ogy (180) Naut/ical (1252)

Numismatics (40)Ophthal/mology(180)Opt/ics (800)Ornithol/ogy (123)Parl/iamentary proc/edure 15)Pathol/ogy (2113)Petrog/raphy(40)Pharm/acy (952)

Philately (60)Phonetics (304)Photog/raphy (330)Physical Chem/istry (150)

Physical Geog/raphy (40)Physics (1289)Physiology(334)Plant Pathol/ogy(150)Plumbing(90)Poker(80)Printing (361)Prosody (202)Psychiatry (236)Psychoanalysis(80)Psychology (361)Radio and Television (1100)Railroads (150)

Real Estate(160)Rhetoric (86)Rocketry (90)Rom/an Cath/olic Ch/urch (400)

Rom/an Hist/ory(50)Scand/inavian Myth/ology (80)Shipbuilding (90) Sociology(124)Sports(450)Statistics (220)Stock Exchange (90)Surg/ery (320)

Survey/ing (120)Telecommunications (70)Television (750)Textiles (160)Theat/er (210)Theology (150)Thermodynam/ics (70)Transportation(150)U.S. [United States] (3000)U.S. Govt [government] (60)U.S. Marines (20) Vet/erinary Med/icine(40) Vet/erinary Pathol/ogy (240)Whist (40)Wrestling(50)Zoology (874)^[1]